Twenty-five years after the September 11, 2001, attacks, the political landscape of Europe continues to bear the indelible mark of the global response, particularly the "War on Terror," which inadvertently amplified the influence of far-right parties across the continent. The post-9/11 era saw the rise of Islamophobic narratives that permeated international policy, lending legitimacy to a strain of anti-Muslim sentiment that had been simmering within Europe’s far-right movements for years.
The Pre-9/11 Seeds of Anti-Islam Sentiment
Prior to the September 11 attacks, far-right political factions in Europe occupied a largely marginalized space within the continent’s multi-party democratic systems. While some garnered significant electoral support, many remained politically stigmatized or excluded from governmental power. Their public image was often defined by overt anti-Semitism and a nostalgic embrace of fascist ideologies, rather than by credible aspirations for national leadership.
However, the ideological ground began to shift in the years leading up to 2001. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the long-standing racist ideologies of the far right started to pivot, sharpening their focus specifically on Islam. Parties such as France’s National Front (now the Rassemblement National) and Austria’s Freedom Party identified Islam as their new "enemy within." In their rhetoric, Arab and Black communities in France were increasingly conflated with "Muslims," and Turks in Austria faced similar recharacterization.
As early as 1991, the People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) in the Netherlands articulated concerns that Islam posed a threat to liberal democracy and obstructed immigrant "integration." By the late 1990s, Dutch politician Pim Fortuyn published a book titled "Against the Islamisation of Our Culture," introducing a more blunt and overt form of Islamophobia into the national political discourse.
The September 11th Catalyst
The September 11 attacks provided the far right with an unprecedented opportunity to expand its reach and influence, an opening they had long sought. The coordinated terrorist attacks, orchestrated by 19 al-Qaeda hijackers who crashed four planes into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania, claiming the lives of 2,977 people, prompted U.S. President George W. Bush to declare a "Global War on Terror."
This declaration fundamentally altered the global security environment. The far right no longer needed to solely manufacture anti-Muslim sentiment; the subsequent political rhetoric, extensive media coverage, and military interventions in Muslim-majority countries did much of that work for them.
The "War on Terror" Narrative and its Fallout
President Bush maintained that the conflict targeted "terrorists" who had distorted Islamic teachings, rather than Islam itself. However, the subsequent rhetoric and policies frequently cast all Muslims as suspects, portraying the religion as inherently violent. This framing served to normalize and globalize Islamophobia throughout the duration of the "War on Terror."
The Bush administration’s assertive declaration, "Either you are with us or you are with the terrorists," left European governments with limited room for independent policy maneuvering. A significant number of European nations, over 13, joined the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan, with British forces playing a particularly direct combat role. Twelve countries participated in the invasion and occupation of Iraq, with the United Kingdom and Poland taking on substantial combat responsibilities, though France and Germany notably opposed this intervention.
Media Framing and Domestic Policy Shifts
Across the continent, media coverage frequently adopted a blatantly Islamophobic tone, reinforcing an image of Muslims as violent and threatening. Terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda affiliates in Madrid and London intensified the perception that the enemy was already "within," fostering suspicion towards any individual identified as Muslim as a potential threat.
During this period, European governments, even while the far right remained largely outside of direct power, began implementing their own Islamophobic policies. These included programs aimed at countering violent extremism and deradicalization, such as the United Kingdom’s "Prevent" strategy. Furthermore, European nations cooperated with the U.S. in hosting secret CIA "black sites" and facilitating rendition flights to detention facilities like Guantanamo Bay and other sites where torture was practiced.
These initiatives were predicated on the assumption that Muslim religious belief inherently represented a dormant threat, capable of being "activated" into violence against the West. Guantanamo Bay became the era’s most notorious symbol of this logic, a lawless detention facility where individuals were held on unfounded suspicion without due process.
The Transatlantic "Counter-Jihad" Network
A cadre of self-proclaimed experts on "extremism" and "terrorism," including figures like Pamela Geller, Frank Gaffney, Daniel Pipes, and Robert Spencer, cultivated careers by legitimizing this framework for American audiences. They soon established connections with strengthening far-right movements in Europe. Together, they formed the self-described "Counter-Jihad Movement," a transatlantic network comprising anti-Muslim organizations, political parties, writers, bloggers, and activists.
This movement was united by the central claim that "Western civilization" was under attack by Islam. Beginning in 2007, the movement utilized the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe’s (OSCE) annual Human Dimension Implementation Meeting as a platform to disseminate its ideology within European and North American policy circles. Far-right leaders from countries including Austria, Belgium, England, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, and Norway convened at annual counter-jihad conferences held in various European cities.
Years before Pamela Geller gained prominence for her opposition to the proposed "Ground Zero Mosque" in New York in 2010, her European counterparts were actively engaged in transnational organizing against mosque construction. In 2008, the "Cities Against Islamisation" initiative brought together far-right leaders from the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Austria, France, and Italy, who marched alongside anti-Muslim activists from the United States.
Electoral Success and Mainstreaming Far-Right Agendas
This sustained anti-Muslim mobilization gradually yielded electoral success. As opposition parties, far-right movements began to gain traction. Initially, they exerted pressure on mainstream rivals, compelling them to adopt aspects of their rhetoric. Subsequently, they transitioned into coalition partners in national governments across Europe, including in Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, the Netherlands, Italy, Norway, Poland, and Finland. In Denmark and Sweden, these parties became influential "kingmakers," shaping government policy from outside the cabinet.
The Expansion of Anti-Muslim Policies
The implementation of anti-Muslim policies has only continued to expand. Far-right parties, and mainstream governments facing pressure from them, have enacted a growing array of restrictions on the religious freedoms of Muslims. These include bans on full-face veils in several countries, prohibitions on the hijab for teachers, students, or public employees in others, and severe restrictions, and in some instances, outright bans on mosque construction. As a consequence, Muslims, who constitute a disproportionate share of Europe’s working poor, have been further marginalized.
Even as an increasing number of Muslims pursue higher education and professional advancement, a securitized discourse—rooted in the logic of the "War on Terror" and intertwined with far-right "great replacement" conspiracy theories—has adapted to confront them. The historical accusation that Muslims refuse to integrate has evolved into a newer claim: that successful Muslims pose an even greater risk, purportedly working in secret to subvert Western societies. This echoes the historical role attributed to Jews, depicted as the "enemy within" who could never be trusted.
Institutionalizing Suspicion and Curtailing Liberties
Several governments have institutionalized this suspicion by targeting Muslim-led civil society organizations. Increased surveillance of mosques and non-governmental organizations, coupled with the curtailment of civil liberties, has become standard practice in many European states. This is often framed as combating "political Islam" in Austria, "Islamist separatism" in France, or "legalistic Islamism" in Germany. In each instance, the tolerated Muslim is the one who remains invisible—the individual who does not assert a claim to public space or protest injustice.
The language and infrastructure established by the "Global War on Terror" facilitated the unchecked growth and expansion of these trends. With a significant portion of Europe still reluctant to confront its own histories of colonialism, racism, and fascism, Islamophobia has become a broadly accepted political position. This has not merely been exploited by the far right; it has been actively cultivated into a cornerstone of their success.
